Action Research: History, Methodology, and Philosophical Underpinnings

Chapter 4 Action research Mills J and Birks M. (2014). In: Mills J and Birks M (eds) Qualitative methodologies: A practical guide. London: Sage Publications

Learning objectives Outline the history and development of action research and some of the influences that have impacted on it Discuss the importance in action research of involving participants in the research and being flexible and responsive to the research situation Defend sources of quality and rigour in action research, in recognition that it seems to violate many of the traditional evaluation criteria

Learning objectives Discuss action research as an empowering research philosophy Examine action research as a cyclic process for researching change as it happens Describe the ways in which information is collected, analyzed, utilized and reported in action research

History of the methodology Action research s distinguishing characteristics are that it is: action orientated intended to produce research informed change research informed change to address live issues those affected by the change are involved as participants

History of the methodology Kurt Lewin (1946) is generally credited with the development of action research Action research is a widely used methodology in the fields of education, organizational change, community change and farming research

History of the methodology In the past half century diverse related approaches have also developed. These include: action science action learning soft systems methodology appreciative inquiry community-based participatory research

Philosophical underpinnings Intended to resolve problems by integrating theory and practice Underpinned by pragmatism (Greenwood and Levin, 2006) Postmodernism shift - constructivism can fit well with a methodology that involves participants so fully (Lincoln, 2001)

Philosophical underpinnings Critical realism has been an influential alternative Critical realism assumes that we know the real world imperfectly and indirectly This approach appeals to researchers who wish to make a practical difference (French, 2009)

Philosophical underpinnings Action researchers are generally more interested in changing the world than discussing its philosophical status Philosophical discussions more likely to focus on value and ethics (axiology) than ontology and epistemology Values are concerned with engaging participants as equals and empowerment

Positioning the researcher Different varieties of action research position the researcher differently Quasi-experimental methods without involving participants (Sagor, 2005) First-person action research uses participatory components with with less-participative self- reflection on the nature and role of the researcher (Chandler and Torbert, 2003)

Positioning the researcher Researcher is the expert who guides participants (sometimes termed technical action research) (Carr and Kemmis, 1986) Research with (not on) participants, who choose the issues (sometimes termed process consultation or practical action research) (Carr and Kemmis, 1986)

Positioning the researcher Participants become co-researchers. Participants and researcher decide the issues to be studied, the process used and resulting actions to be taken (referred to as emancipatory action research) (Carr and Kemmis, 1986) Emancipatory action research can be difficult to achieve (Webb, 1996)

Positioning the researcher Participants drive the research process ( do-it- yourself research) (Wadsworth, 2011) If emancipation is needed the participants emancipate themselves

Aligning philosophy and methodology with purpose Purpose of most action research is to improve participation in real and important issues through informed trial and error The philosophy of action research can vary even when purposes or processes are similar

Aligning philosophy and methodology with purpose Link between methodology and purpose is clearer Sets of tools serve different elements of the purpose i.e. one set of action research tools engenders participation and therefore commitment to action another set of tools produces good understanding, or theory

Aligning philosophy and methodology with purpose Action researchers generate both understanding of practical situations and actions to improve them Participant involvement can promote commitment to change regardless of whether participation is adopted for ideological or pragmatic reasons

Aligning philosophy and methodology with purpose Diversity among participants can provide diverse information and a wider choice of solutions Iterative cycles of action alternating with reflection allow the flexibility of trial and error Action-reflection cycle consists of planning, action, evaluation (Lewin, 1946) or planning, action, observation and reflection (Kemmis and McTaggart, 2005)

Data generation and collection In each action research cycle information is collected, analyzed and interpreted Qualitative data collection methods may include: observation, interviews, focus groups, surveys, photovoice, participatory video

Analysis of data The purpose of data analysis in action research is: to produce theory or at least understanding to inform action

Quality and rigour The following apply to all research: Maintain mindfulness and care throughout the research process Be aware of threats to quality and act to counter them Pay attention to surprises or information that does not fit your preconceptions. Actively seek out negative cases that challenge emerging understandings

Quality and rigour Sources of rigour common to action research and qualitative research in general include: Multiple sources of data and multiple collection methods can provide triangulation Involving participants as researchers reconciles their different perspectives and deepens their understanding on which they can act

Presentation and dissemination of findings Opinions are diverse as to what extent action research findings should be presented and disseminated Zuber-Skerritt (2001) contends that public dissemination of study results is one of the defining characteristics of action research Dissemination may not proceed beyond immediate study participants

Presentation and dissemination of findings Findings may be disseminated via conference presentations, blogs, informal web-pages and peer-reviewed literature There are a range of peer-review publications specializing in action research including: Action Research(Sage), Educational Action Research (Taylor & Francis), International Journal of Action Research(Hampp), and Systemic Practice and Action Research(Springer)

Summary Action research combines and integrates action (change) and research (understanding) Generally those affected by the change are responsible for understanding and subsequent actions Characteristics of action research such as action orientated, research based, participative and cyclic, determine how the research is done, who is involved, how it is reported and what outcomes are achieved

References Carr W and Kemmis S. (1986) Becoming critical: Education knowledge and action research, London: Falmer Press. French S. (2009) Action research for practicing managers. Journal of Management Development 28: 187-204. Greenwood D and Levin M. (2006) Introduction to action research: social research for social change, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kemmis S and McTaggart R. (2005) Participatory action research: communicative action and the public sphere. In: Denzin N and Lincoln Y (eds) The Handbook of Qualitative Research. 3 ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 559-603. Lewin K. (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2: 34-46. Lincoln Y. (2001) Engaging sympathies: relationships between action research and social constructivism. In: Reason P and Bradbuy H (eds) Handbook of action research: participative inquiry and practice. London: Sage, 124-132. Wadsworth Y. (2011a) Do it yourself social research, San Francisco, CA: Left Coast Press. Zuber-Skerritt O. (2001) Action learning and action research: paradigm, praxis and programs. In: Sankaran S, Dick B, Passfield R, et al. (eds) Effective change management using action learning and action research: concepts, frameworks, processes, applications. Lismore, NSW, Australia: Southern Cross University Press, 1-20.