Counting and Arithmetic Strategies in Early Mathematics
Explore the concepts of counting, early arithmetic strategies, and Number Talks in early childhood education. Discover how structuring numbers promotes number sense and learn about efficient strategies for calculation without structured representations. Engage in interactive sessions to enhance mathematical language and problem-solving skills.
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Computer Languages Group A: General Concepts Group A: General Concepts
Computer Languages Computer Languages Language is a means of communication. We use a natural language such communicate out ideas and emotions to others. as English, to Similarly, a programmer uses a computer language to instruct a computer what he/she wants it to do. We can classify all computer languages broadly into following three categories: Machine language Assembly language High-level language.
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) The language that every computer understands without any translation program is called machine language of the computer. It is written as strings of binary 0s and 1s. The circuitry of a computer can recognize the machine language instructions immediately and converts them into electrical signals needed to execute them.
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) A machine language instruction normally has a two-part format. The first part is operation code (opcode) that tells the computer what function to perform and The second part is operand that tells where to find or store the data on which the computer has to perform the function. OPCODE (Operation code) OPERAND (Data/Address of data) Instruction Format
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) Hence each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform and the length and locations of the data fields involved in the operation. Every computer has a set of operation codes called its instruction set. Every opcode in the instruction set is meant to perform a specific basic operation or function.
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) Typical operations included in the instruction set of a computer are: 1. Arithmetic operations 2. Logical operations 3. Branch operation for transfer of control to the address given in the operand field 4. Data movement operations for moving data between memory locations and registers 5. Data movement operations for moving data from input devices to memory or from memory to output devices.
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) Limitations of Machine Language: 1. 1. Machine Machine dependent differs from computer to computer dependent Machine language 2. 2. Difficult Difficult to difficulties to memorize or refer to dozens of opcode numbers for commands in machine language or keep track of the storage location of data and instruction. to program program Programmers face lot of
Machine Language Machine Language (First generation language) (First generation language) 3. 3. Error Error Prone keep track of the storage locations of data and instruction, the programmer cannot concentrate fully on the logic of the program, resulting in programming errors. Prone To remember the opcodes and 4. 4. Difficult Difficult to instructions to locate errors is very difficult and time consuming for the programmers. to modify modify checking machine
Assembly AssemblyLanguage Language (Second generation language) (Second generation language) Since it was difficult for people to communicate with computers in the language of 0 s and 1 s, the binary instructions were given in abbreviated form by using hexadecimal code system. But inspite of it, it was difficult to understand a program written in hexadecimal numbers. This microprocessor to device a new symbolic code for each instruction, called mnemonic form the assembly assembly language language. problem led each manufacturer of mnemonic, which
Assembly AssemblyLanguage Language (Second generation language) (Second generation language) Mnemonic for a particular instruction consists of letters which suggest the operation to be performed by that instruction (e.g. ADD for Addition, MULT for multiplication etc) Few Few examples examples MOV MOV A,B A,B : : Moves the contents of register B to the Accumulator MVI MVI B, B,08 08 : : Transfer the data 08 to the register B LDA LDA 2200 memory location 2200H to the Accumulator 2200H H : Transfers the contents of the
Assembly AssemblyLanguage Language (Second generation language) (Second generation language) ADD ADD M M : The contents of the memory location, whose address is in the H-L pair are added to the Accumulator and the result is stored there. RAL RAL : Contents of the Accumulator are rotated left one bit through carry. STA STA 2500 Accumulator in the address location 2500H 2500H H : Stores the contents of the
Assembler Assembler A computer can directly execute only machine language programs, which use numbers for representing instructions and storage location. Hence we must convert/translate an assembly language program into equivalent machine language program before executing it on the computer. A translator program called Assembler translation. Assembler does this
Assembler Assembler An An Assembler Assembler is system software supplied by computer manufacturers, which translates an assembly language program into its equivalent machine language program. In addition to translating, it also assembles the machine language program in main memory of the computer and makes it ready for execution. Assembly language program Machine Language Program Assembler
Limitations of Assembly Language Limitations of Assembly Language 1 1. . Machine Machine Dependent differ from computer to computer, hence they are machine dependent. 2 2. . Knowledge Knowledge of of Hardware Hardware required assembly languages are machine dependent, the programmer should have a good knowledge of the characteristics and the logical structure of the hardware of the computer. 3 3. . Machine Machine level level coding coding: : In assembly language also, we have to write instructions at machine code level The instruction differs from machine to machine. Dependent: : Assembly languages required: : Since
Macro Assemblers Macro Assemblers In general, each assembly language instruction results in one machine language instruction. However sometimes we use more than one Assembly language instruction to perform a single job. For example we need three instruction one after another to print a value on a computer, and we need to use these three instruction repeatedly. In such case we can substitute these three instructions with a single Macro instruction (say PRINT). Now instead instructions again and again for printing a value on a computer, we can use the single instruction PRINT. of using those three
Macro Assemblers Macro Assemblers Thus any instruction, such as PRINT, which an assembler translates into several machine language instruction is called macro macro instruction instruction. There might be many such macro instruction permitted by an assembler, just to speed up the coding process. These assemblers are called Macro Macro Assemblers Assemblers.
High High- -Level Language Level Language (Third generation language) (Third generation language) Both machine and assembly language have the following limitations: 1. They are machine dependent. We cannot execute a machine/assembly language program on any computer other than the one for which a programmer has written it. 2. The programmer needs a good knowledge of the internal structure of the computer used. 3. It is difficult, error-prone and time consuming.
High High- -Level Language Level Language (Third generation language) (Third generation language) High-Level languages overcome these difficulties of low-level programming languages. They have the following features: 1. They are machine independent. We can easily port and execute a program written in high-level language on any computer having translator software for that high-level language. 2. The programmers need not know anything about the internal structure of the computer, which will execute their high-level language program.
High High- -Level Language Level Language (Third generation language) (Third generation language) 3. Coding is much easier because high-level language uses simple English words and familiar mathematical symbols and expressions. 4. It is easier to learn and use, compared to assembly language and programming. machine language 5. Better documentation may be maintained, which is understandable and thus programs are easier to maintain than assembly/machine language programs.
Compiler Compiler A computer can only execute machine language programs directly. Hence we must convert or translate a high-level language program to its equivalent machine language program before we can execute it in a computer. A compiler is a translator program, which is more sophisticated than an Assembler, that translates a high-level language program into its equivalent machine language program. The input to the complier is a high-level language program (called the source source program is the equivalent machine language program (called the object object program program). program) and its output
Compiler Compiler Separate language compilers are available for separate high-level languages, and once the program is compiled and the object code generated, it can be executed any number of times, without any further requirement of the source code. But if the source code is modified, it needs to be compiled again and the new object code should be generated again before execution.
Linker Linker In modular approach of software development, software consists of multiple source program files. We can modify and compile each source program file independent of other source program files to create a corresponding object program file. In this case we use a program called linker combine all object program files (modules) of the software and to convert them into a final executable program, which is sometimes called load module. linker to Thus a linker is software that takes multiple object program files (modules) of some software and fits them together to assemble them into the software s final executable form.
Interpreter Interpreter Interpreter is another type of translator used to translate a high-level language program into its equivalent machine language program. It takes one statement of the high-level language program, translates it into machine language instruction, and then executes the resulting machine language instructions immediately. Thus while the high-level program is being executed, the Interpreter translates it line-by-line into low-level machine code and executes it, until the execution of the whole program is finished. In this case, no separate executable object module is created and the source program is required every time during execution.
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter Difference between Compiler and Interpreter Compiler Interpreter 1. A compiler is a translator program which translates the high-level program machine level code directly, before execution, separate object module which can be executed. 1. The Interpreter is also a translator program, translates the language code line by line into executable machine code and is executed, and continues this till the whole program is executed. 2. The source file is required every time the program needs to be executed, because no separate object created. which into high-level into a 2. A separate object module is created, which after linking with other object modules, can be executed. The source file is no more required here. files are
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter Difference between Compiler and Interpreter Compiler Interpreter 3. The compiler forces the programmer to make the correction of errors before the compiled executable file is created. 4. Compilers are much faster than the interpreted program 3. The interpreter allows make programmers corrections in their programs during execution. to 4. Interpreters are much slower than compilers when running a finished program.
Object Object- -Oriented Concepts Oriented Concepts Since the invention of the computers, many programming approaches have been tried such as procedural programming, modular programming, structural programming etc. The primary motivation in each case has been the concern to handle the increasing complexity of programs that are reliable and maintainable. Procedural Procedural Programming Programming A program in procedural language is a list of instructions where each computer to do something. The focus is on the processing, the algorithm needed to perform the desired computation. statement tells the
Object Object- -Oriented Concepts Oriented Concepts Procedural Procedural Programming Programming Continued Continued Languages support this paradigm by providing facilities for passing arguments to functions and returning values from functions. In procedural paradigm, the emphasis is on doing things. The data on which the program works remains ignored.
Object Object- -Oriented Concepts Oriented Concepts Modular Programming With the increase in program size, a single list of instruction becomes unmanageable. Thus a large program is broken down into smaller units, i.e. functions. The idea of breaking a program into functions can further be extended by grouping a number of functions together into a larger entity called module. But here too, the principle is similar to procedural programming, i.e. grouping of components that carry out specific task.
Object Object- -Oriented Concepts Oriented Concepts Modular Programming Continued In modular programming, since many modules access the same data, the way the data is stored becomes critical. The arrangement of data cannot be changed without modifying all the functions that access it. Another problem associated with procedural and modular programming is that their chief components (i.e. functions etc.) do not model the real world. For instance, a procedural maintenance aims at the operations Issue, etc etc. . whereas the real world entities are Books case, the books are not given much importance. program for library Return Issue, Return Books. In this
The Object The Object- -Oriented Programming Oriented Programming The object-oriented approach views a problem in terms of objects involved, rather than procedure for doing it. Object Object Object characteristics characteristics and behavior say that Orange is an object, whose characteristics are: it is spherical shaped, its colour is orange etc. Its behavior is: It is juicy citrus and it tastes sweet- sour. is an identifiable behavior. For instance, we can entity with some
The Object The Object- -Oriented Programming Oriented Programming Object Object continued continued . . While programming with OOP approach, The characteristics of an object are represented by its data and It s behavior is represented by its functions associated. Therefore, in OOP programming, object represents an entity that can store data and has its interface through functions.
The Object The Object- -Oriented Programming Oriented Programming Class Class A class is a group of objects that share common properties and relationship. A class can be considered as a prototype of an object, where the characteristics and behavior are defined and the object can be considered as the actual instance of a class. For example, Car can be considered as a class with the properties such as steering wheels, seats, a motor, brakes, gears, colour etc. and its behavior such as: changing gears, acceleration etc. rotation radius,
The Object The Object- -Oriented Programming Oriented Programming Opel Astra with reg. no. 5234 Opel Astra with reg. no. 5234, is an object of the class Car Car , with the data for each properties such as: Steering Wheels: Power steering Seats : 6 Motor : 1500cc Gear : 5 Colour : Red Speed : 40km/h The behaviours can be implemented through associated functions like: Changing gears() Steering() Acceleration()
The Object The Object- -Oriented Programming Oriented Programming Alto 800 with Alto 800 with reg class Car Car , with the data for the properties such as: reg no. 5562 no. 5562, is another object of the Steering Wheels : Power steering Seats Motor Gear Colour Speed : 5 : 800cc : 4 : Blue : 55km/h Note that we can change the values of the data, only through the associated functions. Thus the class Car acted as the prototype and the objects are the actual instances.
