Insights into Daniel Defoe: A Prolific Writer and Political Figure

Daniel Defoe 1660-1731 ROXANA ROXANA 1724 1724 1

I. Who was Daniel Defoe? O dissenter dissenter business venturer O business projector venturer, , O projector political journalist, journalist, O political undercover agent, O undercover agent, novelist, O novelist, etc. . O etc 2

A Prolific writer O 1719 First novel: 1719 First novel: Robinson Crusoe Robinson Crusoe O 1722: 1722: The Fortunes and The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders; A Journal of the Plague Flanders; A Journal of the Plague Year; & Colonel Jacque Year; & Colonel Jacque O 1724 1724: : The Fortunate Mistress The Fortunate Mistress [Roxana] [Roxana] 3

Other important publications O 1697 1697 Essay on Projects Essay on Projects 1698 1698 An argument An argument shewing standing army, with consent of Parliament, is standing army, with consent of Parliament, is not inconsistent with a free government, &c not inconsistent with a free government, &c O shewing, that a , that a O 1701 1701 The True 1702 1702 The Shortest Way with the Dissenters The Shortest Way with the Dissenters The True- -Born Englishman Born Englishman O Review, 1704 Review, 1704- -13 O 13 4

II. Defoe: a signature moment O A. Political A. Political History O Glorious Revolution, Glorious Revolution, O William & Mary William & Mary O Queen Queen Anne History Anne O B B. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters . The Shortest Way with the Dissenters O Impersonating in order to Impersonating in order to expose: The extreme extreme high high- -church church voice (cf. dramatic monologue). monologue). O Unintentional self Unintentional self- -exposure, self condemnation condemnation expose: The voice (cf. dramatic 5 exposure, self- -

The Pillory: Understanding the extreme http:// http://digitalcollections.nypl.org digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47df e040 e040- -e00a18064a99 e00a18064a99 /items/510d47df- -7499 7499- -a3d9 a3d9- - 6

Impersonation ODefoe was adept at impersonation Defoe was adept at impersonation-- -- both in both in his writing and his writing and in political work political work. . O His His talent for impersonation is part talent for impersonation is part of his novelistic achievement. of his novelistic achievement. in his active his active 7

III. Precursor to Defoes fiction: casuistry O A. What is Casuistry? O a system a system of moral O Negotiates between general moral Negotiates between general moral rules and rules and individual cases individual cases of moral problem problem solving solving O Operates on the principle Operates on the principle that Circumstanes Circumstanes alter cases that alter cases 8

B. Casuistry as precursor: Examples O Athenian Mercury Athenian Mercury cases O Question: Question: O Whether a tender Friendship between two Persons Whether a tender Friendship between two Persons of a different Sex, can be innocent? of a different Sex, can be innocent? O Question: Question: O If it be lawful for a Man, having If it be lawful for a Man, having bury d marry her own Sister, the first leaving issue marry her own Sister, the first leaving issue behind her? behind her? O Question: Question: O Whether it is lawful to marry a Person one cannot Whether it is lawful to marry a Person one cannot Love, only in compliance to Relations; and to get Love, only in compliance to Relations; and to get an Estate? an Estate? cases bury d his Wife, to his Wife, to 9

C. Casuistry and Roxana: moral ambiguity O 'm a Gentlewoman of a small Fortune, and Married to a Man 'm a Gentlewoman of a small Fortune, and Married to a Man who . . . left me with a Charge of Children, and went to who . . . left me with a Charge of Children, and went to another Country, without making the least Provision either another Country, without making the least Provision either for them or me for them or me-- --Nor will his Friends look on us, and I've been Nor will his Friends look on us, and I've been already very chargeable and troublesome to my own, who already very chargeable and troublesome to my own, who are now grown as Cold as his: A gentleman now Importunes are now grown as Cold as his: A gentleman now Importunes me very much to be his Mistress, who I know Loves me me very much to be his Mistress, who I know Loves me passionately, and will provide for me and them. passionately, and will provide for me and them. I desire your Advice what I were beset do, Whether I must lay my Children Advice what I were beset do, Whether I must lay my Children to the Parish; for Begging won't maintain us, and Stealing is to the Parish; for Begging won't maintain us, and Stealing is as bad as Whoring? as bad as Whoring? Or how I ought to behave myself for I Or how I ought to behave myself for I can find no Means, but either to yield to this Temptation; or can find no Means, but either to yield to this Temptation; or see my Children starve? see my Children starve? I know I ought not to do the least I know I ought not to do the least Evil that Good may come of it; but yet of two Evils, we must Evil that Good may come of it; but yet of two Evils, we must chuse chuse the least: An Answer to this would both oblige and the least: An Answer to this would both oblige and quiet, you, &c. quiet, you, &c. I desire your 10

Examples in the novel of cases of problem solving O "I was terribly "I was terribly frighted my Children being brought to Misery and my Children being brought to Misery and Distress, as those must be who have no Friends, Distress, as those must be who have no Friends, but are left to Parish Benevolence" (25) but are left to Parish Benevolence" (25). . frighted at the Apprehensions of at the Apprehensions of O Defoe, both creates character and satirizes Defoe, both creates character and satirizes the parish system of poor relief, while setting the parish system of poor relief, while setting up a commentary on the inadequacy of the up a commentary on the inadequacy of the family values. family values. 11

Amy as casuist O "there's abundance of Charity begins in that Vice, "there's abundance of Charity begins in that Vice, and he and he is not is not so unacquainted with things as not to so unacquainted with things as not to know, that Poverty is the strongest Incentive" (27) know, that Poverty is the strongest Incentive" (27). . Amy says it would not be lawful for anything else Amy says it would not be lawful for anything else (28) (28) O "I think Honest is out of the Question, when Starving "I think Honest is out of the Question, when Starving is the Case" (28). is the Case" (28). O Roxana states the virtuous (and Roxana states the virtuous (and heroic she would die before consenting to sex just to get she would die before consenting to sex just to get food: food: "a Woman ought rather to die, than to "a Woman ought rather to die, than to prostitute her Virtue and prostitute her Virtue and Honour Honour, let the Temptation be what it will" (29) be what it will" (29) O heroic) ) extreme extreme , let the Temptation 12

Roxanas comments nevertheless create sympathy for casuistical reasoning. O O O let no Woman slight the Temptation that let no Woman slight the Temptation that being generously generously deliver'd deliver'd from Trouble, is to any Spirit from Trouble, is to any Spirit furnish'd furnish'd with Gratitude and just Principles" (35) with Gratitude and just Principles" (35). . O Notice how principle is used. Notice how principle is used. being O Where are your sympathies? Where are your sympathies? 13

Amy again as casuist O " "he calls you Widow, and such, indeed, you are; he calls you Widow, and such, indeed, you are; for as my Master has // left you so many Years, for as my Master has // left you so many Years, he is dead to be sure; at least, he is dead to you; he is dead to be sure; at least, he is dead to you; he is no Husband, you are, and ought to be free to he is no Husband, you are, and ought to be free to marry who you will . . ." (37) marry who you will . . ." (37). . O Landlord s Landlord s casuistical casuistical reasoning: " reasoning: "and it very hard that we should be very hard that we should be ty'd of of the Contract, where the Essence of it was the Contract, where the Essence of it was destroy'd destroy'd" (41). " (41). and it wou'd ty'd by the by the Formality wou'd be Formality be 14

So --What does casuistry provide? O A way of solving problems: Casuistry emerges when a culture faces questions and problems that don t seem to have adequate answers in traditional rules or practices. O Modern examples: O Applying the seventeenth-century casuistry of accommodation to HIV Prevention O Casus or casuistry? - Weapons of mass destruction: Iraq's elusive weapons O How Casuistry and Virtue Ethics Might Break the Ideological Stalemate Troubling Agricultural Biotechnology. 15

Circumstances alter cases & the novel O If circumstances alter cases, it follows that motive motive and intention intention have to be considered. O Casuistry thus provides an entry into the mind. 16

Paradox of casuistry O Casuistry may provide a method of trying to follow principle when there is no clear path, What ought I to do in these circumstances? O But it may also lead to the question What can I get away with? and still justify myself? O Defoe called it playing bo-peep with God. OEven playing bo-peep with God leads into the mind (and is thus useful to the novelist). 17

A view of the mind with no ethical guarantee O Casuistic reasoning allows a glimpse of the mind at work but does not guarantee the ethical quality of that mind. O Readers may feel ambivalent about Roxana s thinking. See Roxana s report of the landlord s reasoning. (42). O Casuistic reasoning offers the novelist a Casuistic reasoning offers the novelist a means of creating both skepticism and means of creating both skepticism and sympathy about the mind being revealed. sympathy about the mind being revealed. 18

The reader and Roxanas divided mind O Do you have a Do you have a readerly readerly alliance . . . alliance . . . O when when Roxana is relentlessly self Roxana is relentlessly self- -critical: "I say but too justly, that I was empty of Principle . . . . justly, that I was empty of Principle . . . . and Conscience left off speaking, where it found it left off speaking, where it found it cou'd (44). (44). O when Roxana when Roxana puts puts Amy to bed with the Landlord (46ff)? Amy to bed with the Landlord (46ff)? O when when Roxana has a premonition of the Jeweler's death Roxana has a premonition of the Jeweler's death (52 (52- -3). 3). O when Roxana's tears of affliction are dried up by the when Roxana's tears of affliction are dried up by the handsome treatment of the Prince handsome treatment of the Prince-- --and she becomes the "finest Woman in "finest Woman in France France" (58 " (58- -64)? O When she says: " "I had no Casuists to resolve this Doubt" I had no Casuists to resolve this Doubt" (68) and "as it was all (68) and "as it was all irresistible irresistible, so it was all (69). (69). critical: "I say but too and Conscience cou'd not be heard" not be heard" and she becomes the 64)? , so it was all lawful lawful" " 19

Why are Roxanas men named as they are? O By profession or status O The Brewer O The Landlord O The Jeweler O The Prince O The Merchant O How is this naming different from Wycherley s Sparkish, Mr. Pinchwife, etc.? 20

Aloneness even in sociability O Where is the social community when Roxana Where is the social community when Roxana is living with the Landlord/Jeweler? is living with the Landlord/Jeweler? when she becomes mistress to the Prince? she becomes mistress to the Prince? What do you make of the kind of confinement she do you make of the kind of confinement she agrees to agrees to? ? O Defoe allows Roxana to slip in and out of Defoe allows Roxana to slip in and out of social communities, to transform herself social communities, to transform herself continually. continually. O A continuous fluidity of identity. A continuous fluidity of identity. when What 21

The Turkish dress O Relation of power and appearance O The novel seems to be making a case that power The novel seems to be making a case that power in the world depends on appearances in the world depends on appearances - - people ask who ask who Roxana Roxana is, where she comes is, where she comes from, her fortune is, but there seems no reliable way to her fortune is, but there seems no reliable way to check it check it out out people from, what what O Defoe is responding to increased mobility and Defoe is responding to increased mobility and decreased social context in which everyone is decreased social context in which everyone is known. known. 22

Competing narrative trajectories O Repentance Repentance vs O The repentance project seems embedded The repentance project seems embedded in her continual self in her continual self- -castigation. Preface says, "she makes frequent Preface says, "she makes frequent Excursions, in a just censuring and Excursions, in a just censuring and condemning her own Practice: How often condemning her own Practice: How often does she reproach herself in the most does she reproach herself in the most passionate Manner; and guide us to just passionate Manner; and guide us to just Reflections in the like Cases" (preface) Reflections in the like Cases" (preface) vs Survival Survival castigation. As the As the 23

Repentance vs. Survival O "with my Eyes open, and with my Conscience, as I may say, "with my Eyes open, and with my Conscience, as I may say, awake, I awake, I sinn'd sinn'd, knowing it to be a Sin, but having no , knowing it to be a Sin, but having no Powr resist" (44). resist" (44). Powr to to O The Prince's delight in showing her the sights and telling her The Prince's delight in showing her the sights and telling her the history as they traveled: "What valuable Pains were here the history as they traveled: "What valuable Pains were here thrown away upon One, who he was sure, at last, to abandon thrown away upon One, who he was sure, at last, to abandon with Regret!" with Regret!" O See Amy's repentance during the storm. 125. But Roxana See Amy's repentance during the storm. 125. But Roxana though she can mouth the words lord have mercy on me though she can mouth the words lord have mercy on me has a kind of insensibility of soul a kind of insensibility of soul - - 129 repentance. repentance. has 129 She says it's no thorough She says it's no thorough O See great work of repentance. 159 See great work of repentance. 159 O And her talk about being a Monument and a Memorial And her talk about being a Monument and a Memorial 24

Her business is, however, SURVIVAL O "I did not forget that I had been Rich and Poor "I did not forget that I had been Rich and Poor once already, alternately; and that I ought to once already, alternately; and that I ought to know, that the Circumstances I was now in, know, that the Circumstances I was now in, were not to be expected to last always were not to be expected to last always. . O This memory of the past This memory of the past is foundational for Roxana Roxana - - It is knowledge based on experience. It is knowledge based on experience. is foundational for 25

More on Roxanas survival O She is as realistic in assessing what it takes to survive She is as realistic in assessing what it takes to survive as she is in assessing her moral character. as she is in assessing her moral character. Survival means not just getting on means not just getting on- - but becoming so rich that you cannot be touched, harmed, compromised you cannot be touched, harmed, compromised. . O . . O Compare Hobbes Compare Hobbes. . CHAPTER XI So that in the first place, I put for a generall inclination of all mankind, a perpetuall and restlesse desire of Power after power, that ceaseth onely in Death. [A man] cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he hath present, without the acquisition of more. Survival but becoming so rich that 26

O And this too is one of Defoe's satirical And this too is one of Defoe's satirical targets. targets. Money makes the difference in Money makes the difference in whether people have to deal with whether people have to deal with consequences. consequences. E.g. When she comes to E.g. When she comes to England pregnant (after leaving Holland) she England pregnant (after leaving Holland) she is too rich to have the parish authorities is too rich to have the parish authorities questioning her about who will pay for the questioning her about who will pay for the upkeep of the child upkeep of the child 27

What is the instructive agenda for each: survival vs repentance? O Defoe has Roxana speak out of the text to Defoe has Roxana speak out of the text to the reader in order to reinforce the self the reader in order to reinforce the self- - accusatory judgments she makes. accusatory judgments she makes. O To the extent that the reader wants Roxana To the extent that the reader wants Roxana to survive, to that extent, the to survive, to that extent, the reader is engaged in a desire that runs counter to the engaged in a desire that runs counter to the repentance agenda. repentance agenda. reader is 28

How elastic can the principle that "Circumstances alter Cases" become? O " "Comply and live; deny and starve" (110) Comply and live; deny and starve" (110) 29

A well-known case O Henry Garnet, Jesuit priest, was long supposed to have provided the justification for the Gunpowder plot. O As a renowned casuist, some of the papists applied to As a renowned casuist, some of the papists applied to him to solve a nice case of conscience: Whether, for the him to solve a nice case of conscience: Whether, for the sake of promoting the Catholic religion, it might be sake of promoting the Catholic religion, it might be permitted, should necessity require, to involve the permitted, should necessity require, to involve the innocent in the same destruction with the guilty? to this innocent in the same destruction with the guilty? to this he replied, without any hesitation, That, if the guilty he replied, without any hesitation, That, if the guilty should constitute the greater number, it might. This should constitute the greater number, it might. This answer led to the Gunpowder Plot . . . answer led to the Gunpowder Plot . . . O Edward William Grinfield, The Jesuits: an historical sketch, 1851, p. 119 30

How does dress function in Roxana? O The Turkish Habit (173) O The Quaker habit (211) O Quite another body

The Turkish Habit O Roxana becomes exotic and almost untouchable O She makes herself up and no one seems to check her story out. O She is a sign pointing to nothing. She is no more than her appearance, no more than her performance. O Similarly, Roxana lives in uncertainty about the reliability of others appearance & performance(122). O Appearance is all there is. O Dress is so important to Roxana that her view of disaster is to be naked(121).

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The Quakers habit O I had not only learn d to dress like a Quaker, but so us d myself to Thee and Thou, that I talk d like a Quaker too, as readily and naturally as if I had been born among them . O there was not a Quaker in the Town look d less like a Counterfeit than I did (213). O cf. All this while, this was indeed, but a Copy of my Countenance (233).

Unfixed, Immaterial, Unidentifiable O And so is credit: And so is credit: O Money Money has a younger Sister, a very useful and has a younger Sister, a very useful and of of? ? cious cious Servant in Trade, which in the absence of Servant in Trade, which in the absence of her senior Relation, but with her Consent, and on the her senior Relation, but with her Consent, and on the Supposition of her Confederacy, is very assistant to Supposition of her Confederacy, is very assistant to her; . . . but if she be never so little disappointed, she her; . . . but if she be never so little disappointed, she grows sullen, sick, and ill grows sullen, sick, and ill- -natured, and will be gone for natured, and will be gone for a great while together: Her name in our Language is a great while together: Her name in our Language is call d call d CREDIT, in some countries CREDIT, in some countries Honour others, I know not what. others, I know not what. O From Defoe s Review From Defoe s Review Honour, and in , and in O South Sea Bubble South Sea Bubble early financial collapse early financial collapse 35

The past O Roxana Roxana s survival depends on erasing the s survival depends on erasing the past past O Anyone who holds a trace of the past can expose her self-constructing fictions. O The Jeweler s relatives O Her brewer husband O The loss of the jewels O The Dutch merchant says he wou d not upbraid [her] with the past (160), but that s the past he knows about.

The past produces evidence of her identity. O The dress becomes empirical evidence of her existence in the past. O As savvy as Roxana is, how could she have carried a piece of the past with her? OMateriality vs fiction (fictions of identity & fictions of credit)? O Even her countenance begins to be evidence. Things are closing down for her. O She can t go to Paris. She can t go to London. O Her options are remote in the country or out of England (233)

The End of Prosperous Wickedness (243) O What would you think of the novel if it ended here? O With the wedding, the dinner, the bedding, the joking about fertility, the joining of fortunes? O What genre underlies the narrative to this point? O What does the handwriting on the wall suggest? (259)

Susan O Susan becomes the material reality that limits Roxana s fictions (though named only once [205]) O Susan is the past that forces its way into the present. O Susan creates a new scene of life for Roxana and a new scene of interpretation for the reader. O What does Susan bring to the narrative that no one else does? O How do you take Susan into account as you interpret the novel?

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