Language Use in Political Discourse: Code-Switching and Social Identity

Afraid to speak English Afraid to speak English? No other languages as well to offend Trump : other languages as well to offend Trump : Code ode- -switching as a response to impoliteness in switching as a response to impoliteness in Facebook comments Facebook comments ? No culero culero, I speak four , I speak four Matthew Pollock

Political Discourse Purpose Kampf (2016): Shows of solidarity Users Boyd (2014): Levels of discourse in YouTube comments Candidates Blas-Arroyo (2001): Strategies of Spanish PM candidates in televised debate

Rapport Management Component Face rights Definition "desire for people to evaluate us positively in terms of our personal qualities; e.g. our competence, abilities, appearance, etc." (2002, pp.9) "desire for people to acknowledge and uphold our social identities or roles, e.g. as a group leader, values customer, close friend" (2002, pp.13) Quality face Social identity face Sociality Rights "belief that we are entitled to personal consideration from others, so that we are treated fairly: that we are not unduly imposed upon or unfairly ordered about, that we are not taken advantage of or exploted, and that we receive the benefits to which we are entitled" (2002, pp.9) "belief that we are entitled to association with others that is in keeping with the type of relationship that we have with them" (2002, pp.10) Equity rights Association rights Spencer-Oatey (2002), Escalona-Torres (2016), Culpeper et al. (2010)

Computer Mediated Discourse (CMD) General Ideas Herring & Androutsopoulos (2015): Identity Code-Switching Gumperz (1982) vs. Auer (2005): Code-Switching as a means of identity expression. CMD Identity Expression Herring (1994): Flaming gendered perceptual differences Marquez & Ridao (2015): Discourtesy in FB more prevalent than Twitter

Research Questions 1. What effect did the primary level production (Trump s updates) have on the lower-level responses? a. Is there more of a tendency toward code-switching in cases of a more hostile primary-level message? 2. What tactics are used by monolingual FB users to respond to instances of switching? Are there clear patterns? a. Who tends to have the final turn in these conversations? 3. Is there a difference in gendered discourse within the groups?

Primary Level of Discourse Date Comments Likes 29k 199k Status Classification Characters 7/14/2015 Quality Face Social Identity Face Equity Rights Association Rights 52/1,224 [Clinton] is knowingly putting out lies about my stance on illegal immigration. I said Mexico is sending --- I m not knocking immigration or immigrants, but rather am very critical of the country of Mexico for sending us people that they don t want [Paragraph 1 = immigration, 2 & 3 = Clinton] 2/18/2016 16k 20.5k Social Identity Face Association Rights 146/146 If we don t have borders we don t have a country. I will build a WALL and stop ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION. #TrumpTrain #Trump2016 #MakeAmericaGreatAgain! [with 57 second video of Trump on immigration] 5/5/2016 226k 615k Social Identity Face Equity Rights 89/89 Happy Cinco de Mayo! The best taco bowls are made in Trump Tower Grill. I love Hispanics! [with image of Trump eating a taco bowl] 9/1/2016 6k 74k Quality Face Social Identity Face 202/202 Thank you to President Enrique Pena Nieto - for the invitation to meet with him in Mexico City, Mexico. Wonderful leadership and high quality people! I look forward to our next meeting. -Donald J. Trump [Includes 47 sec video of DT landing w/ 2.1M views]

Secondary and Tertiary Level Level User Donald Trump Comment Primary Level Happy Cinco de Mayo! The best taco bowls are made in Trump Tower Grill. I love Hispanics! Trump is a special kind of "PENDEJO" Secondary Level 1M afraid to speak english? Tertiary Level 1 2M No culero, I speak 4 other languages as well to offend Trump. Tertiary Level 2 1M

Rapport Management Component Face rights Example Quality face E1.C3.M: Disculpa no pense k era Una mujer k me hacia comentarios tan vulgares...pues yo tambien pelea y eso no da la escusa...mis respetos [Sorry, I didn t think that you were a woman, making such vulgar comments well, I also fought [as a veteran] and that doesn t give any excuse my respects.] E3.C1.M: Blacks and hispanics have the lowest iq's on earth Asians and whites have the highest it really is easy to see when you look at peoples comments one group revels in the past the other cares about the future Social identity face Sociality Rights Equity rights E1.C2.F: The plan is : donald trump is going to fine anyone just once, for hiring illegals and the second time, take their license. Illegals will have no jobs and then start to group together and protest bamm. Put them in a cage and send them back. E1.C2.M: Speak English or leave. E3.C8.F: "1.F.First Name" - I have a great idea. Go to Mexico and celebrate there. You'll fit right in with the cartels. Association rights

Anti- Trump Factor Group Logodds Tokens % Weight Logistic Regression Language (p<0.001) Intrasentential CS Intersentential CS English Discoursive Level of Recipient (p<0.001) Secondary Primary Tertiary Quality Face (p<0.001) Attacks None Attacks and Defense Defense Region (p<0.001) Spanish-Speaking South West Midwest New England Unknown Southwest n=246, df=14, log.likelihood=-104.829, R2=0.584 0.636 0.499 -1.136 54 80 112 44 62 53 81.48% 77.50% 47.32% 0.654 0.622 0.243 Dependent variable: Anti- vs. Pro- Trump Comments Independent variables selected as significant for Anti-Trump users: Language: Anti- commenters are more likely to code-switch, use Spanish Comment recipient: Most usually directed at secondary comment (thread originator) rather than at Trump or tertiary level commenters Quality Face: Most likely to attack Region: Most likely to come from southern US states or Spanish-speaking countries 1.162 -0.172 -1.405 97 27 122 82 11 66 84.54% 40.74% 54.10% 0.762 0.37 0.348 1.045 0.309 -0.483 -0.872 133 73 14 26 105 41 78.95% 56.16% 35.71% 30.77% 0.740 0.577 0.382 0.295 5 8 2.489 0.975 -0.188 -0.572 -0.637 -0.822 -1.245 50 31 37 8 19 58 43 47 23 23 4 8 35 19 94.00% 74.19% 62.16% 50.00% 42.11% 60.34% 44.19% 0.923 0.726 0.453 0.361 0.346 0.305 0.224

Observations 255 turns analyzed Swearing (56 instances) Trump es un pendejo y este post es mentira. [Trump is an asshole and this post is a lie. Code-switching (54) 1F He hates the latinos , think about it ! He said that the mexicans and all latinos are rapers . 1F Aprende a leer. He never said all Mexicans were rapists, furthermore he never mentioned Latinos. You shouldn't invent stories as things are easily verified nowadays. First-name-only references (25) Grammar corrections (22) 1M: I'm a trump supporter and I thought this was funny 2M: Get a education 3M: "2.M" get an* education. Seems as though you also need one.

Code-Switching (CS) Post Primary Level Content [Clinton] is knowingly putting out lies about my stance on illegal immigration If we don t have borders we don t have a country. I will build a WALL Happy Cinco de Mayo! The best taco bowls are made in Trump Tower Grill. I love Hispanics! Thank you to President Enrique Pena Nieto - for the invitation to meet with him Users Turns CS Turns Exchanges Final Turn CS 1 50 114 67 (58.8) 25 14 (56.0) 2 20 24 17 (70.8) 10 9 (90.0) 3 66 98 51 (52.0) 38 32 (84.2) 4 15 18 7 (38.9) 4 2 (50) Total 151 255 142 77 57

Rapport Management among Monlinguals E1 E2 n % n % Monolingual Management E3 E4 Total % 40 n % n % n Quality Face 35 Attack Defense 6 (8.1) Total 15(20.3) 1 (7.7) 2 (15.4) 11(12.6) 3 (23.1) 43(49.4) 10(66.7) 32(36.8) 7 (46.7) 3 (20.0) 55 (29.1) 22 (11.6) 77 (40.7) 30 21(28.4) Social Identity Face 25 Attack Defense 14(18.9) Total 18(24.3) 3 (23.1) 19(21.8) 2 (15.4) 14(16.1) 5 (38.5) 33(37.9) 3 (20.0) 2 (13.3) 5 (33.3) 43 (22.8) 32 (16.9) 75 (39.7) E1 20 E2 32(43.2) E3 Equity Rights E4 15 Attack Defense 8 (10.8) Total 6 (8.1) 1 (7.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (7.7) 4 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 4 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 11 (5.8) 8 (4.2) 19 (10.1) 10 14(18.9) Association Rights 5 Attack Defense 4 (5.4) Total 3 (4.1) 2 (15.4) 2 (15.4) 4 (30.8) 13(100) 6 (6.9) 1 (1.1) 7 (8.0) 87(100) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 15(100) 11 (5.8) 7 (3.7) 18 (9.5) 189 (100) 0 7 (9.5) 74(100) QF Attack QF SI Attack SI ER Attack ER AR Attack AR Grand Total Defense Defense Defense Defense

Rapport Management among Bilinguals E1 E2 n % n % Bilingual Management E3 E4 Total n % 40 n % n % Quality Face 35 Attack Defense 7 (7.1) Total 38(38.8) 13(50.0) 38(48.7) 2 (7.7) 45(45.9) 15(57.7) 45(57.7) 5 (45.5) 1 (9.1) 6 (54.5) 94(45.4) 17(8.2) 111(53.6) 7 (9.0) 30 Social Identity Face 25 Attack Defense 15(15.3) Total 19(19.4) 5 (19.2) 18(23.1) 1 (3.8) 6 (23.1) 27(34.6) 3 (27.3) 1 (9.1) 4 (36.4) 45(21.7) 26(12.6) 71(34.3) E1 9 (11.5) 20 E2 34(34.7) E3 Equity Rights E4 15 Attack Defense 10(10.2) Total 2 (2.0) 3 (11.5) 1 (3.8) 4 (15.4) 3 (3.8) 1 (1.3) 4 (5.1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 8(3.9) 12(5.8) 20(9.7) 10 12(12.2) Association Rights 5 Attack Defense 4 (4.1) Total 3 (3.1) 1 (3.8) 0 (0.0) 1 (3.8) 26(100) 1 (1.3) 1 (1.3) 2 (2.6) 78(100) 1 (9.1) 0 (0.0) 1 (9.1) 11(100) 6(2.9) 5(2.4) 11(5.3) 207(100) 0 7 (7.1) 98(100) QF Attack QF SI Attack SI ER Attack ER AR Attack AR Grand Total Defense Defense Defense Defense

Gender Speaker Exchange 2.F "1.M" tu eres un pinche pendejo.. My questions here is okay yall talk about illegal immigrants right 1.M "2F.First Name" Tu eres un descarado falta de respeto y mal educado! 2.F He did said all Mexican are crimals rapist don't sure coat it !! How he said it seem like he hates Mexican people 1.M Go to YouTube and replay his speech until it sinks in your skull...!!! He never used the word "ALL" HE'S concerned about National security! Y el pendejo eres Tu...gracias! 2.F Es un paise libre q no dijo lo q tu eres por eso nuestro paise Es haci por gente como Tu soy Mexicana y citizen de Los estados unidos I love this country y por eso my Esposo pelea por este paise pero nunca se me olvida de donde vengo no soy pendejo 2.F He said all Mexican are criminals rapist and that Mexico sent their bad worst which it's not truth 1.M Disculpa no pense k era Una mujer k me hacia comentarios tan vulgares...pues yo tambien pelea y eso no da la escusa...mis respetos Translation 1M you are a fucking asshole.. My questions here is okay y all talk about illegal immigrants right 2F.First Name You are a shameless lack of respect and bad education. He did said all Mesicans are criminals rapists don t sure coat it!! How he said it seem like he hates Mexican people Go to YouTube and replay his speech until it sinks in your skull...!!! He never used the word "ALL" HE'S concerned about National security! And you re the asshole thanks! It s a free country that doesn t say what you are that s why our country is made for peoplelike you I m mexican (f.) and citizen of the US I love this country and that s why my husband fights for this country but I never forget whereI come from and I m no asshole. He said all Mexican are criminals rapist and that Mexico sent their bad worst which it's not truth Sorry I didn t think you were a woman, making such vulgar comments well, I also fought and that is no excuse my respects.

Gender Gendered tendencies of CMD Men tend toward assertiveness, flaming Typical gendered balance (Herring et al., 1998) Women tend to avoid attacks, use social words Swearing by Gender Female n % 17 (14.7) 99 (85.3) 100 (71.9) 199 (78.0) 116 (100) 139 (100) Male Total n 56 (22.0) n 39 (28.1) % % Present Absent Total Language by Gender English Code-Switching n % 62 (53.9) 53 (46.1) 115 (100) 255 (100) Total n % 116 (45.5) 139 (54.5) 255 (100) n % 54 (38.6) 86 (61.4) 140 (100) Female Male Total

Rapport Management by Gender Rapport Management among Male Users Rapport Management among Female Users Politeness Type E1 E2 E3 E4 Total E1 E2 E3 E4 Total Quality Face n % n % n % n % n % Quality Face n % n % n % n % n % Attack 17 (23.9) 3 (17.6) 34 (38.2) 7 (50.0) 61 (31.9) Attack 36 (34.6) 11 (50.0) 35 (46.7) 5 (50.0) 87 (41.2) Defense 4 (5.6) 2 (11.8) 9 (10.1) 0 (0.0) 15 (7.9) Defense 12 (11.5) 2 (9.1) 9 (12.0) 2 (20.0) 25 (11.8) Total 21 (29.6) 5 (29.4) 43 (48.3) 7 (50.0) 76 (39.8) Total 48 (46.2) 13 (59.1) 44 (58.7) 7 (70.0) 112 (53.1) Social Identity Face Social Identity Face Attack 18 (25.4) 4 (23.5) 22 (24.7) 5 (35.7) 49 (25.7) Attack 19 (18.3) 4 (18.2) 15 (20.0) 1 (10.0) 39 (18.5) Defense 13 (18.3) 2 (11.8) 10 (11.2) 2 (14.3) 27 (14.1) Defense 16 (15.4) 1 (4.5) 13 (17.3) 1 (10.0) 31 (14.7) Total 31 (43.7) 6 (35.3) 32 (36.0) 7 (50.0) 76 (39.8) Total 35 (33.7) 5 (22.7) 28 (37.3) 2 (20.0) 70 (33.2) Equity Rights Equity Rights Attack 5 (7.0) 1 (5.9) 4 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 10 (5.2) Attack 3 (2.9) 3 (13.6) 3 (4.0) 0 (0.0) 9 (4.3) Defense 11 (15.5) 1 (5.9) 1 (1.1) 0 (0.0) 13 (6.8) Defense 7 (6.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 7 (3.3) Total 16 (22.5) 2 (11.8) 5 (5.6) 0 (0.0) 23 (12.0) Total 10 (9.6) 3 (13.6) 3 (4.0) 0 (0.0) 16 (7.6) Association Rights Association Rights Attack 2 (2.8) 2 (11.8) 7 (7.9) 0 (0.0) 11 (5.8) Attack 4 (3.8) 1 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (10.0) 6 (2.8) Defense 1 (1.4) 2 (11.8) 2 (2.2) 0 (0.0) 5 (2.6) Defense 7 (6.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 7 (3.3) Total 3 (4.2) 4 (23.5) 9 (10.1) 0 (0.0) 16 (8.4) Total 11 (10.6) 1 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (10.0) 13 (6.2) Grand Total 71 (100.0) 17 (100.0) 89 (100.0) 14 (100.0) 191 (100.0) Grand Total 104 (100.0) 22 (100.0) 75 (100.0) 10 (100.0) 211 (100.0)

Conclusions Roles of code-switching Tactic to index identity Also connected to political stance Means of providing context for political beliefs I am a Hispanic I am a proud Mexican Monolingual responses Grammatical/language comments, Ignoring Do bilinguals finish these exchanges? Four patterns based on identity and politics of secondary-level poster: pro-/anti-Trump and mono-/bilingual. An avenue for using strong language in a monolingual conversation where it is often ignored Quality Face attacks with reduced threat to face Gendered differences More frequent among men. Connection to quality face and gendered CMD tendencies. Dropping presence over time or with more hostile comments Continued trend

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