Problem Solving and Barriers to Effective Solutions
Explore the principles of problem solving, different types of problems, barriers that hinder effective solutions, and various approaches to enhance problem-solving skills. Learn how well-defined and ill-defined problems, irrelevant information, mental sets, and unnecessary constraints affect problem-solving processes. Discover heuristic methods, algorithms, problem spaces, and strategies like forming subgoals, working backward, searching for analogies, and changing problem representations.
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Presentation Transcript
*Problem solving: active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable *PROBLEM SOLVING
*Problems of inducing structure: relations among numbers, words, symbols, ideas *Problems of arrangement: arranging parts of a problem to fit some criterion---solved through insight: sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based on trial and error *TYPES OF PROBLEMS
*Problems of transformation: carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal *TYPE OF PROBLEMS
*Well-defined problems: problems in which the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are clearly specified *Ill-defined problems: one or more elements among the initial state and the constraints are unclearly specified *WELL-DEFINED VS. ILL-DEFINED PROBLEMS
*Irrelevant info *Functional fixedness: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use *Mental set: when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past *Unnecessary constraints *BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
*Problem Space: the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem *Algorithm: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives *Like trial and error *Heuristic: a guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions *A rule of thumb *APPROACHES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
*Forming subgoals: intermediate steps *Working backward: easy w/problem w/well specified end-point *Searching for analogies *Changing the representation of the problem: change the way you look at a problem *TYPES OF HEURISTICS
*Field dependence-independence: tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting yourself in space *Field dependent rely on external frames of reference *Field independent can restructure problem more easily *CULTURE, COGNITIVE STYLE, AND PROBLEM SOLVING
*DECISION MAKING: CHOICES AND CHANCES
*DEF: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them *Theory of bounded rationality: asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focuses on only a few facets of available options and often result in irrational decisions that are less than optimal *DECISION MAKING
*Decisions involve choices about preferences *Additive strategy: list attributes that influence a decision *Compensatory decision models: allow attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes *Or could use a: elimination by aspects strategy *Noncompensatory decision models: do not allow some attributes to compensate for others *Used when more options and factors are added to a decision task *MAKING CHOICES: SELECTING AN ALTERNATIVE
*Risky decision making: making choices under conditions of uncertainty *Expected value: do you expect to gain or lose *Subjective utility: is it personally worth it to you *Subjective probability: sometimes you need to rely on your personal estimates of probabilities *TAKING CHANCES: FACTORS WEIGHED IN RISKY DECISIONS
*Availability heuristic: involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease of with which relevant instances come to mind *Recalling specific instances of an event *HEURISTICS IN JUDGING PROBABILITIES
*Representativeness heuristic: basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event *HEURISTICS IN JUDGING PROBLEMS
*People underestimate risks or probabilities * It won t happen to me *TENDENCY TO IGNORE BASE RATES
*DEF: when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone *CONJUNCTION OF FALLACY
*DEF: when peoples belief about whether an outcome will occur changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant *ALTERNATIVE OUTCOMES EFFECT
