Secondary 4 Pure Geography
The challenges in effectively managing the spread of infectious diseases encompass global threats, emergence of new diseases, re-emergence of eradicated diseases, and global transmission. Factors such as resistance to drugs, air travel, climate change, and insecticide resistance contribute to the re-emergence of diseases like malaria. Understanding these challenges is crucial in implementing strategies for disease control and prevention.
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Presentation Transcript
Secondary 4 Pure Geography Chapter 3 Health and Diseases Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases?
Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases? a. What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? b. Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? c. What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? d. What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? e. What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases?
What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? The challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases are due to the global threat of emerging of new infectious diseases, re-emergence of eradicated infectious diseases and the global spreading of infectious diseases.
Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases? a. What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? b. Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? c. What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? d. What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? e. What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases?
Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? The Global Malaria Eradication Programme in the 1950s and 1960s which made diagnosis and treatment widely available and carrying out house- spraying with insecticides to repel mosquitoes and surveillance has resulted in suppressing malaria cases. However, malaria re-emerged in the late 1980s especially in Central Asia. This is due to a number of reasons. Reasons for the Re-Emergence of Malaria Resistance to anti-malarial drugs Air travel Climate change Insecticide-resistant mosquitoes
Re-Emergence of Malaria Resistance to Anti-Malarial Drugs Mosquito parasites are slowly becoming resistant to anti-malarial drugs for no particular reason. Due to this, consumption of anti-malarial drugs by infected persons may not be effective. For example, when migrant workers who still carry malaria parasites returned home to India from working stints in the Mekong region of Thailand, they were exposed to getting bitten.
Re-Emergence of Malaria Air Travel Due to the increase in air travel, disease-causing organisms can also be transported to new areas. This led to the re-emergence of malaria in places like France. A healthy passenger can board a plane in Asia and get bitten by an infected Anopheles. He gets infected and upon landing, he gets bitten by another Anopheles. The mosquito will get infected and spread the disease. For example, a re-emergence of malaria was reported in France in 1995. This was due to globalisation and air travel.
Re-Emergence of Malaria Climate Change Global warming has brought about increase in temperatures and this has made valleys and mountainsides etc. at higher altitudes and higher latitudes breeding sites for larvae. For example, climate change has raised the average temperatures in the Central Highlands of Kenya, allowing malaria to occur in areas of higher altitude.
Re-Emergence of Malaria Insecticide-Resistant Mosquitoes Mosquitoes were repelled when sprayed with DDT (an organic compound) but when synthetic pyrethroids were used to kill mosquitoes, they eventually build up their resistance to it, just like parasites inevitably growing resistant to anti-malarial drugs.
Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases? a. What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? b. Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? c. What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? d. What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? e. What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases?
What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? Managing the spread of malaria is extremely difficult due to many socio- economic and environmental factors. Socio-Economic Challenges Limitations of healthcare Population movement due to efficient transport and communications Environmental Challenges Effects of climate change Effects of monsoons
Socio-Economic Challenges Limitations of Healthcare The absence of an approved malaria vaccine unlike some diseases which have approved vaccines make healthcare demanding. Currently, only anti-malarial drugs are available. The progressively increasing resistance of malaria parasites to anti-malarial drugs is a challenge. For example, in 2009, resistance of malaria parasites to mefloquine, a powerful anti-malarial drug, was reported along the Thai-Cambodian border.
Socio-Economic Challenges Population Movement due to Efficient Transport and Communications People move for a variety of reasons. The movement of infected people from malaria-endemic areas to areas where the disease had been eradicated can lead to resurgence of the disease. This movement is increasing at scale and speed due to the increasing ease of travelling with better transport links between countries. This allows malaria to flourish along international borders and allows it to be transmitted to relatively low transmission areas. Hence, globalisation plays an important role in promoting the transmission of malaria.
Environmental Challenges Effects of Climate Change Human activities on climate may cause local temperature to rise and rainfall to reduce. Malaria-endemic areas may extend their geographic boundaries. Global warming may shift weather and climatic patterns that may bring about floods and storms in some regions, providing more stagnant puddles of water for mosquitoes to breed. For example, the spread of malaria may decrease over most parts of tropical Africa because of likely increases in temperatures but reduced rainfall. Cooler highland areas and some temperate regions which were previously malaria-free may be at risk of epidemics as temperature increases.
Environmental Challenges Effects of Monsoons Monsoon rains are associated with increase in the number of malaria cases due to heavy rains, creating puddles of stagnant water especially on exposed low-lying land.
Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases? a. What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? b. Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? c. What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? d. What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? e. What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases?
What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? Managing the spread of HIV/AIDS is extremely difficult due to many socio-economic factors. Socio-Economic Challenges Difficulties in HIV detection Lifestyle choices Social stigma leading to non-reporting of disease High cost of antiretroviral therapy Population movement across borders and along highways for work
Socio-Economic Challenges Difficulties in HIV Detection There are often no symptoms soon after infection, so the only way to diagnose it is by HIV testing. This may be expensive and inaccessible to the poor. Moreover, flu symptoms will appear only within a few months of infection but those types of symptoms can be easily dismissed as common flu. For example, generally more than 50% of HIV-positive people in Sub- Saharan African countries like DR Congo are unaware that they are living with HIV.
Socio-Economic Challenges Lifestyle Choices It is difficult to prevent the spread of HIV because it is transmittable through sharing needles, blood, ignorance in practising safe sex etc. especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, some tribes in Kenya are entrenched in their tradition of practising polygamy (having more than 1 wife) and having large family sizes.
Socio-Economic Challenges Social Stigma leading to non-reporting of Disease Discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS results in them being ostracised by society. This non-acceptance of HIV-positive people has driven those living with HIV/AIDS to remain silent about their condition, stay away from treatment and continue with their activities which may infect others. The challenge is getting the support and understanding of society to drop the social stigma associated with HIV/AIDS and to accept them. For example, even in a DC like the USA, about 30% of Americans prefer not to be in close contact with a person living with HIV/AIDS.
Socio-Economic Challenges High Cost of Antiretroviral Therapy The high cost of antiretroviral drugs makes it unaffordable for HIV- positive people in poor countries like those in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, with government subsidies, this treatment is becoming cheaper. Although antiretroviral therapy (ART) treatment is becoming cheaper, it may still be unaffordable due to other costs like transportation in getting to the clinic and forgoing a day s earing to visit a clinic. For example, in Botswana where 25% of the adult population have HIV/AIDS, long waiting time at clinics was a major reason why patients stop visiting and taking medication.
Socio-Economic Challenges High Cost of Antiretroviral Therapy LEFT: A chloropleth map showing the percentage of people receiving ART; RIGHT: The number of HIV/AIDS deaths avoided due to ART
Socio-Economic Challenges Population Movement Across Borders and along Highways for Work Many males in Sub-Saharan African countries move from their villages to work as miners, truck drivers etc. in another place, leaving their families at home. These people may seek the company of commercial sex workers and may get infected. For example, the Kinshasa Highway, which links Uganda and Kenya, is known as the AIDS Highway because of the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS among commercial sex workers along the road.
Gateway 3 How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases? a. What are the challenges in managing the spread of infectious diseases? b. Why is there a re-emergence of malaria? c. What are the challenges in managing the spread of malaria? d. What are the challenges in managing the spread of HIV/AIDS? e. What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases?
What can individuals, communities, governments and organisations do to manage the spread of infectious diseases? The control and management of infectious diseases require close cooperation among individuals, communities, governments and international organisations. All stakeholders involved have a significant role to play in controlling the spread of infectious diseases. Individuals Governments Awareness Exercise social responsibility Avoid participating in risk-taking behaviours Implementation of precautionary measures Implementation of mitigation measures Organisations Role of international organisations Role of NGOs Communities Role of communities
Role of Individuals Awareness, Exercising Social Responsibility It is the responsibility of individuals to be aware of how infectious diseases spread and to take precautionary measures to protect themselves as well as protect others from getting infected. For example, individuals should be aware that respiratory illnesses are easily spread through irresponsible social behaviour. Precautionary measures include covering mouths and noses when coughing or sneezing and refraining from sharing food with others.
Role of Communities Empowering communities with decision-making on control strategies, their implementation and deployment of trained health workers may make patients be more receptive to medical treatment. For example, Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is one of the methods Sierra Leone is using to rapidly increase sustainable sanitation worldwide. It raises awareness and offers affordable sanitation options to curb open defecation. The community often goes from house to house, digging toilets for each household that needs assistance. EFFECTIVENESS: The implementation of CLTS has helped 754 communities improve their sanitation, thereby reducing the incidences of diarrhoea. LIMITATIONS: CLTS works best in rural areas where the population density is low. Urban areas lack the space for toilets.
Role of Governments Precautionary Measures (Providing Vaccinations against H1N1) The Singapore government takes precautionary measures against vaccine-preventable diseases for children. For example, in 2009, the Singapore government provided vaccinations for its population against H1N1 before it emerged in the nation. EFFECTIVENESS: The government s role in adopting precautionary measures succeeds in avoiding an epidemic with most cases of H1N1 influenza mild although 18 deaths were reported. LIMITATIONS: Vaccinations do not give immediate effect and those vaccinated are still exposed to viruses in the first 2 weeks. Some people may choose not to be vaccinated and become exposed to the risk of getting infected.
Role of Governments Precautionary Measures (Thermal Fogging) Thermal fogging involves the distribution of insecticides by using fog produced by heat. It is practised in Singapore. EFFECTIVENESS: Thermal fogging helps to get rid of mosquitoes, giving promising results in disease control. LIMITATIONS: However, thermal fogging is expensive and in terms of labour and chemical costs, it can cause high levels of chemical wastage. Pest Control Operators carrying out thermal fogging in the vicinity of Simon Place after a reported Zika case, 2017.
Role of Governments Mitigation Measures ( Do the Mozzie Wipeout ) In Singapore, the National Environmental Agency (NEA) launched the Do the Mozzie Wipeout in 2013 to prevent dengue outbreak and to raise awareness of the need for prevention measures. A diagram on the procedures regarding the 5-step mozzie wipeout.
Role of Governments Mitigation Measures ( Do the Mozzie Wipeout ) EFFECTIVENESS: Dengue outbreak in 2013 did not reach epidemic level although the number of neighbourhood dengue clusters increased and there were only 7 deaths. LIMITATIONS: Proper planning is required and sufficient personnel must deployed for inspection for these measures to be effective. Moreover, cooperation with citizens is important as well.
Role of Organisations International Organisations (Getting to Zero, 2011-2015) The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) is an innovative partnership that leads and inspires the world in achieving universal access to HIV/AIDS treatment. This allows for comprehensive action with which to tackle the global scale of AIDS. EFFECTIVENESS: UNAIDS support helped ensure the successful agreement between the Government of Kenya and the Global Fund for the implementation of its Round 10 grants of US$483 million, thereby giving the Kenyan government money to tackle AIDS. LIMITATIONS: Social stigma, discrimination and violence against women and girls or other HIV-related abuses of human rights continue to remain widespread, obstructing effective HIV responses.
Role of Organisations NGOs (Measles and Rubella Initiative, 2011) The M&RI is a global partnership and it ensures that no child dies from measles or is born with congenital rubella syndrome. They achieve this by providing vaccination through routine immunisation and campaigns. They also monitor the diseases and evaluate results to ensure progress. EFFECTIVENESS: The initiative has helped to raise measles vaccination coverage globally and reduced measles deaths by 71%. LIMITATIONS: Many LDCs have limited funds to combat measles.
