Semantics: Types of Meaning Explored

M.A. English Semester II M.A. English Semester II Paper V (A) Applied Linguistics and Indian Linguistic Tradition Course Code: EN 205 Unit I: Semantics: Types of Meaning Shayequa Tanzeel Assistant Professor Department of English DDU Gorakhpur University Shayequa 1

According to Leech, Semantics is concerned with giving a systematic account of the nature of meaning (Leech, 1981). What is meaning? There is no intrinsic relationship b/w words and the objects that they refer to since the relationship between the signifier and the signified is established by arbitrariness and convention. For example, there is no logical reason to call the four legged furry animal cat. It is through convention that we associate the word cat with that animal. (Recall Saussure theory of linguistic sign) Therefore, meaning of a word is not the actual object that it refers to, but the concept of the object that exists in the mind, the mental image. Shayequa 2

L.K. Ogden and I. A. Richards attempted to define meaning in their 1923 book The Meaning of Meaning. Simply put, every word is a sign which refers to other signs is order to produce meaning. When we try to find the meaning of a word in a dictionary, it redirects us to other words. Therefore, a sing indicates other signs. Shayequa 3

Ogden and Richards, define meaning is the following ways: 1. An intrinsic property of some thing 2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary 3. The connotations of a word (these are listed below) 4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers 5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer 6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring 7. The thing to which the hearer of that word believes is being referred to Shayequa 4

Types of meaning A linguistic expression conveys several things at once: it conveys a literal or dictionary meaning, connotations (i.e. things beyond literal meaning), information about the social context, and the speaker s attitude. Keeping the above information in mind, Geoffrey Leech classifies meaning into seven types in his book Semantic- A Study of Meaning (1974). Shayequa 5

1. Conceptual or Denotative/Logical/Cognitive/Literal/Dictionary meaning 2. Connotative Meaning 3. Social Meaning 4. Affective or Emotive 5. Reflected Meaning 6. Collocative Meaning 7. Thematic Meaning Shayequa 6

1. Conceptual or Denotative Meaning Also called cognitive, logical or literal meaning. It corresponds to the primary dictionary meaning of the expression. The literal meaning of a word refers to the idea or concept (mental image) to which it refers. Being the core meaning of a linguistic expression, it is the base of all the other types of meaning. The concept is the minimal unit of meaning which may be called a sememe. In other words, sememe is the minimal unit of meaning. It refers to the concept that a linguistic expression evokes. Let s take the example of a word man-----Man = human+adult+male Shayequa 7

All the three qualities are logical attributes of the concept man. These three are the basic attributes that a concept must have to be distinguishable as man. If any of the three changes, the concept also changes. For instance: human+adult+female= Woman. Similarly, Boy= Human+male-adult Man=human+male+adult The above example of the word boy shows that in order to be distinguishable from man , it also needs to be contrasted to the concept of man. Shayequa 8

2. Connotative Meaning It is defined as the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual content (Leech, 1981). It is the communicative value of an expression which may have acquired additional attributes beyond the purely conceptual meaning. Apart from its logical or essential attributes, there is a further meaning attached to a word, or linguistic expression, which comes from its reference to other things in the real world. For ex. The logical or denotative meaning of the word cow is a four legged bovine. However, meanings like calm, docile may also be attached to the word. Shayequa 9

2. Connotative Meaning Connotations of a linguistic expression are purely incidental and vary according to time and society. It is indeterminate and unstable. Connotative meaning is subject to change and modification. For ex. the connotative meaning of the word queer and straight has acquired newer meanings in the present. Queer literally means weird but refers to a person who does not identify themselves as heterosexual. Similarly, in terms of sexuality, straight refers to a heterosexual person. Shayequa 10

3. Social Meaning Social meaning refers to the circumstances of usage. It denotes the social setting in which the utterance has been made. Social meaning is the meaning conveyed by a linguistic expression about the social context of its usage. Social meaning, where words are used to establish relationships between people and to delineate social roles. For example, in Japanese, the suffix "-san" when added to a proper name denotes respect, sometimes indicating that the speaker is subordinate to the listener; while the suffix "-chan" denotes that the speaker thinks the listener is a child or childlike (either for purposes of affection or derision). Shayequa 11

The meaning of a linguistic expression depends on the style and situation in which it is used. to the same object. One needs to select the proper lexical item as per the circumstances and setting. For ex. home refers to the place where a person stays or lives. However, the same may also be referred to by other words like domicile , residence , abode , dwelling and so on. The denotative or conceptual meaning of all the given words is the same. But each word refers to a particular setting of use--- home and dwelling are used is informal conversations; domicile is used is official contexts; residence is formal in nature; and abode is used in literary contexts. Shayequa 12

We realise that although the given words are synonyms, they are not always interchangeable. One needs to identify the appropriate usage of each word. Social meaning depends heavily on the relationship between the speaker and hearer. I ain t done nothin The above expression hints that the speaker is probably a African- American person. It also tells us that the utterance has been made in an informal context. Shayequa 13

4. Affective Meaning It refers to the emotive associations of a linguistic expression. Affective meaning refers to the effects evoked by a linguistic expression in the listener or reader. It reveals the attitude and personal feelings of the speaker and listener towards the referred object. It also uncovers the attitude of the speaker and listeners towards each other. It has to do with the personal feelings or attitudes of the speaker. For ex. The word home evokes multiple emotions like belonging, nostalgia, longing, and yearning in refugees or a person who lives in exile. However, the word home may not evoke yearning in a person who already-always lives there. Shayequa 14

You are an incorrigible liar. The above expression reveals that the attitude of the speaker towards the listener is negative. The speaker has lost hope regarding the listener s habit of dishonesty. Expressions like darling , dear , my love , apple of my eye and so on o=have inherent emotional effect of love and affection. I am sorry to bother you but could you please lower the volume of your tv? The above expression discloses the speakers irritation and discomfort for the sound of the tv. For the sake of politeness, the speaker talks to the hearer in a restrained manner to let him/her know of it. Shayequa 15

5. Reflected Meaning Reflected meaning is a result of multiple conceptual meanings of a word. It has to do with when one sense of a particular word affects the understanding and usage of all the other senses of the word. A word may refer to multiple denotative meanings and the hearer- listener associates the word with the meaning in context. However, other denotative meanings are also reflected in the process. Shayequa 16

For ex. A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: (Wordsworth, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud) The word gay in the above lines denotes me light-hearted and carefree attitude. However, the reflected meaning of homosexual is also unconsciously recognised. Shayequa 17

6. Collocative Meaning Collocative meaning, or "collocation", describes words that regularly appear together in common use (within certain contexts). Collocative meaning refers to the meaning of a word which is acquired through its frequent association with other words. For ex. pretty and handsome both mean good looking , but pretty is used for women and handsome for men. Due to conventional usage of linguistic expression, combinations of words acquire collocative currency. Shayequa 18

7. Thematic Meaning Thematic meaning concerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaning that is entailed. This is the meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker/ writer organises the message in terms of focus, order, and emphasis. The ordering of lexical items in a sentence tells us more about what information is more important. For ex. An active sentence is different from its passive equivalent, although the denotative meaning is the same. In an active sentence the focus is on the doer of the action, whereas in passive the object is more important. Shayequa 19

a. Mrs. Wilson ran the bookstore. b. The bookstore was run by Mrs. Wilson. In (a) Mrs Wilson is the centre of attention, whereas in (b) the focus is on the bookstore. The conceptual meaning of both the sentences is the same but the thematic meaning is different. Shayequa 20

Reference(s) Syal, Pushpinder and D. V. Jindal. An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics 2nd ed. PHI Learning, 2013. Shayequa 21