The Mexican War: Land, Race, and Power
This collection of images and quotes delves into the complexities of the Mexican War, exploring the themes of expansionism, economic motives, racial divisions, and the struggles faced by both Mexico and the United States during this period. From the motivations behind the war to the impacts on borderlands and native communities, the content provides insights into a pivotal moment in history that shaped the course of nations.
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Presentation Transcript
2. The Mexican War Land, Race, and Power
Essential quote Expansionism partially succeeded [during era of the Mexican War] because for a relatively few years expansionists managed to forge a sectional alliance that convinced Americans that expansion could solve problems that, if untreated, would destroy the republic. The irony would be that expansionism itself would very nearly destroy the republic. Richard White, It s Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (1991)
Outline I. Why War? II. Borderlands context III. Settlement and Revolution in Texas IV. Annexation Crisis V. War VI. Outcomes
U. S. Grant on the Mexican War War One of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation.
I. Why war? U. S. Economic expansion Manifest Destiny Belief that the Anglo-Saxon peoples of America had the right and indeed the duty to spread the blessings of freedom and civilization to those who dwelled in darkness. (Henderson, Glorious Defeat, 31) But note latent contradictions sectional division, racial antagonism Imperial competition with British Oregon dispute unresolved, rumors that Mexico would cede California to bondholders to repay heavy debts
Why war? Mexico Badly divided by race, class, region, and ideology (liberal vs. conservative, federalist vs. centralist) groping toward nationhood (Henderson, Glorious Defeat) Many leaders suspected Mexico would lose, but resented U. S. and wanted to regain honor lost in Texas Revolution
II. Mexico's Borderlands: Natives Native nations, particularly in New Mexico and Texas, extremely powerful Settled local groups Pueblos in NM Indios Barbaros Comanches, Apaches, etc. war of a thousand deserts places most of region under effective native control Eastern Indians beyond US protection Cherokees, Alabamas, Kickapoos, Delawares, etc.
Mexicans on the Borderlands California, Texas extremely small colonies at time of Mexican independence No latitudinal connections north-south links poor, so communities isolated from Mexico New Mexico larger, more important Separatist sentiments widespread Poor central government Independent or protectorate status had more to offer Centrifugal tendencies of American commercial expansion and settlement
Borderland identities Mestizaje widespread Identities extremely fluid can t read border backwards in time: Lorenzo de Zavala (1788- 1836), born Spanish subject, becomes Mexican patriot, then Texas empresario and VP of Lone Star Republic
Appeal of Mexican Borderlands to U. S. US population growth: 1800: 5 million Farming frontiers Particularly attractive during depressions Ongoing importance of Jeffersonian myth Dreams of Pacific commerce Colonial-era forays into Pacific Whaling, hide-and-tallow, etc. 1850: 23 million
III. Adams-Onis Treaty A. Jackson invaded poorly defended Spanish East Florida in 1818 1819 treaty signed in consequence Florida to U.S. Spain to drop claims to Pacific NW U. S. renounced claim to TX under Louisiana Purchase, forgave $5 million in unpaid claims by U. S. citizens
Empresarios Only 2,000 Mexicans in Texas at independence; 40,000+ Indians Spain wanted settlers in TX to act as bulwark against U. S. Moses Austin solicited permission to start Anglo- American colony Contract provisions w/ Mexico secured by Stephen F. Austin Non-Catholics had to convert Settlers exempt from taxes for 6 years Children of slaves imported to TX to be free at 14, slave trade prohibited Head of family 4,438 acres for farming, add l 177 acres if herding Empresarios awarded 66,774 acres for every 200
Slavery in TX Empresario commission with Austin provided 80 acres per slave 1825 census: 443 slaves out of total population of 1,800 Both Mexican and Coahuilan constitutions banned slavery 1836 population: 5,000 slaves among total non-Indian population of 38,470
Texan economy Cotton production on slave plantations Some cotton went to Mexico; rest to New Orleans on U. S. vessels Traded there for American wheat, as well as cloth and other goods manufactured in Britain Texans then traded British and American goods to Mexico, in exchange for silver
General Manuel de Mier y Teran, 1829 The North Americans have conquered whatever territory adjoins them. In less than half a century, they have become masters of extensive colonies that formerly belonged to Spain and France, and of even more spacious territories from which have disappeared the former owners, the Indian tribes. The territory against which their machinations are directed, and which has usually remained unsettled, begins to be visited by adventurers and empresarios; some of these take up their residence in the country . . . [and] develop an interest
Stirrings of Independence Fredonian Revolt, 1826-27 Haden Edwards and bi- racial force launch rebellion, announce plans to form the Republic of the Red and White People Efforts to counterbalance Anglo-Americans Mexicanizing Cherokees, encouraging Mexicans to colonize, etc. all failed Centralist government of Santa Anna sought to check separatist tendencies of TX in 1830, ended tariff protection, forbade American settlement, etc. TX population increasingly divided between old-guard moderates led by Austin, and so-called war party newcomers who found best opportunities gone, and hence had more to gain By fall, 1835, imprisonment, events in Mexico led Austin into war party: I am tired of this government .
The Native American role Increased raiding against northern Mexico by Apaches, Comanches, and others, 1830s- onward Weaker defenses, new outlets for contraband (including removed eastern Indians) Devastated region Reduced Mexican ability to resist U. S. invasion Contrast with American success of Indian removal shaped U. S. views of Mexico as a
Texas Independence Main issues central authority vs. local autonomy, including taxes, slavery, land, machinery of government October, 1835 begins with small skirmish between villagers of Gonzales and San Antonio garrison Santa Anna marches on TX, concentrates 2,500 troops at San Antonio, defended by 150 at Alamo March, 1836 TX formally declares independence; Alamo taken by Santa Anna at cost of 600 Mexican soldiers all defenders (189 to 257) killed; Goliad, other main Texan fort, surrenders Santa Anna breaks terms and kills all 342 April, 1836 overconfident Santa Anna routed at San Jacinto 1,300 Mexicans killed, Santa Anna captured
Texas Republic May, 1836--Santa Anna signed two treaties one public, one secret guaranteeing TX independence, setting Rio Grande, not Nueces, as border New government impoverished, wracked by internal conflict US reluctant to annex sectional poison TX remained bellicose David G. Burnet, Texas proper is bounded by the Rio Grande. Texas as defined by the sword, may comprehend the Sierra Madre. Let the sword do its proper work. Mexican Cherokee conspiracy discovered,
IV. Annexation Crisis Pres. John Tyler: unelected, expelled from own party Hoped to ride Texas issue to popularity Proposes treaty of annexation, but Senate rejects in June, 1844 Whigs running Henry Clay, anti-annexationist; pro- annexation forces maneuver at Dem. convention to nominate Polk over Van Buren Dem. platform reannexation of Texas Polk wins slim victory, declares this a mandate Tyler pushes Congress to pass joint annexation resolution issue of slavery supposed to be renegotiated, but Tyler offers annexation on last day and scotches debate J. Q. Adams: the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country
To war As US extends annexation offer, Mexico finally offers to recognize Texas Republic Texans considered both possibilities simultaneously--July, 1845 convention picks annexation to US by 51 to 1 Feb, 1846 Texas President Anson Jones: the final act in this great drama is now performed; the Republic of Texas is no more. Boundary dispute becomes pretext for war
Polks message The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war.
V. Presidential politics in war- time Polk idolized Jackson Sought to annex Texas and purchase California Mexican troops, angered by arrogant proposal made by diplomat Slidell, fire on Zachary Taylor s forces in disputed territory Polk, invoking need to protect national honor, pushes war declaration through Congress Greeted w/ enthusiasm Boston Times : U. S. victory "must necessarily be a great blessing," would bring "peace into a land where the sword has always been the sole arbiter between factions, introducing the reign of law where license has existed for a generation."
Opposition Anti-war movement developed Garrison s Liberator: "Every lover of Freedom and humanity throughout the world must wish them the most triumphant success." Closely linked to slavery Led by Whigs Whig generals Taylor and Scott became heroes, but Polk lambasted
American promises to northern Mexicans Z. Taylor: "It is our wish to see you liberated from despots, to drive back the savage Cumanches, to prevent the renewal of their assaults, and to compel them to restore to you from captivity your long lost wives and children." Kearny: "From the Mexican government you have never received protection. . . . The Apaches and the Navajoes come down from the mountains and carry off your sheep, and even your women, whenever they please. My government will correct all this."
A daguerreotype showing Major Lucien B. Webster's battery in the mountains north of Buena Vista, Mexico, following an important American victory in the Mexican War. Pbs.org
U. S. Army during War Not ready for war fewer than 5,500 soldiers in uniform, so Polk called up 50,000 volunteers In all, 26,922 regulars and 73,260 volunteers served Privates overwhelmingly foreign- born; San Patricio desertion Tight clique of academy graduates offered excellent leadership Great leaders of Civil War learned trade while serving under Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott
Mexican Army Larger at eve of war than U.S. forces Mostly draftees, resulting in much insubordination and foot-dragging One moderate Mexican politician: Strictly speaking, the army does not exist. What today bears that name is only a mass of men without training and without weapons. Poorly supplied Santa Anna s march from San Luis Potosi to Buena Vista 5,000 of 20,000 perish from hunger, thirst, exhaustion, and exposure Supported by soldaderas, women who accompanied campaigns, foraging, nursing, and otherwise helping army
VI. Wars End US takes Mexico City Rebellion erupts throughout Mexico Caste War of Yucatan, peasant revolts in Sierra Gorda states, Veracruz, and Tamualipas Jan., 1848 treaty negotiations begin
Effects of war 21 months long 13,000 American dead (only 1,700 in battle) $100 million spent Growing Latin American fears of colossus of the North But gained: 1.2 million acres of land, 1/3 of present territory Proving ground for generation of generals
Outcomes: Native peoples Spanish/Mexican policy emphasized accommodation and integration Now subject to rapid white settlement, imposition of U. S. control over Indian affairs and strict racial divides Genocide of California Gold Rush most extreme example
Another annexation debate New York Globe: There is a spirit abroad which will not long be stayed a spirit of progress, which will compel us, for the good of both nations and the world at large, TO DESTROY THE NATIONALITY of that besotted people. It would almost seem that they, like the Israelites of old, had brought upon themselves the vengeance of the Almighty and we ourselves had been raised up to overthrow AND UTTERLY DESTROY THEM as a separate and distinct nation.
Opponents Southern slave-holders not a field for expanding institution Racists: Calhoun: Ours is a government of the white man. Equality would be a fatal error.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, March, 1848 Diplomat Nicholas Trist negotiated treaty with Santa Anna Trist had been recalled by Polk but continued negotiations Polk accepted treaty nonetheless
Provisions 500,000+ square miles to US Rio Grande to be southern border of Texas Alta California to include port of San Diego Guaranteed property rights of Mexican citizens in cession area 75,000 Mexicans within cession could decide to become US citizens or not US responsible for Indian incursions originating on US side of border $15 million payment to Mexico War still resented by many in Mexico Contingency: Gold discovered by James Marshall in California nine days before Mexico signed treaty; Polk s announcement of discovery, December, 1848 California would add more to the strength and wealth of the nation than all previous acquisitions
Viewpoints We have not come to terms with what it meant to be a conquering nation. Antonia Castaneda One wonders a bit if the victory in a war that was, after all, a war of aggression to seize territory was not conveniently forgotten by Americans, because it's not one of the more honorable moments in American history. David Weber
